Social hostilities were measured by religion-related terrorism and violence between religious groups. The countries in North and South America reportedly had some of the lowest levels of social restrictions on religion, while The Middle East and North Africa were the regions with the highest. Of the world's 25 most populous countries, Iran, Egypt, Indonesia, Pakistan and India had the most restrictions, while Brazil, Japan, the United States, Italy, France, South Africa and the United Kingdom had some of the lowest levels. While the Middle East, North Africa and the Americas exhibit either extremely high or low levels of government and social restrictions, these two variables do not always move together: Vietnam and China, for instance, had high government restrictions on religion but were in the moderate or low range when it came to social hostilities. Nigeria and Bangladesh follow the opposite pattern: high in social hostilities but moderate in terms of government actions. The study found that government restrictions were relatively low in the U.S., but the levels of religious hostilities were higher than those reported in a number of other large democracies, such as Brazil and Japan. While most countries provided for the protection of religious freedom in their constitutions or laws, only a quarter of those countries were found to fully respect these legal rights in practice. In 75 countries - four in 10 in the world - governments limit the efforts of religious groups to proselytise and in 178 countries - 90 percent - religious groups must register with the government. India and China, also exhibited extreme, but different restrictions on religion. China showed very high levels of government restriction but low to moderate levels of social hostilities, while India showed very high social hostilities but only moderate to high levels of government restrictions. Israel stood out among the nations surveyed with "high scores on the social hostilities index" in comparison with other countries that are more authoritarian or less ordered. At the top of the social hostilities index were Iraq, India, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Indonesia, Bangladesh, Somalia, Israel, Sri Lanka, Sudan and Saudi Arabia.
Examples:
Germany
Past situations of religious discrimination:
Holocaust
The Nazi Party under Adolf Hitler came to power in Germany on January 30, 1933, and the persecution and exodus of Germany's 525,000 Jews began almost immediately. Hitler had been open about his hatred of Jews, and made clear his intention to drive them from Germany's society. In the 1930s, the rights of Jews were restricted; the Nazis considered anyone of Jewish descent, even the descendents of converts were still considered Jews. In 1933, a series of laws were passed to exclude Jews from key areas, medicine, agriculture and law. Jewish lawyers were disbarred; some were even dragged out of their offices and courtrooms, and beaten. Jews were excluded from schools and universities and newspaper agencies.
Before the 1933 elections, the Nazis began intensifying acts of violence to destroy the opposition. With the cooperation of local authorities, they set up camps as concentration centres within Germany. These early camps were meant to hold, torture, or kill only political prisoners, such as Communists and Social Democrats. After 1939, the camps increasingly became places where Jews and POWs were killed or forced to live as slave labourers, undernourished and tortured. Other methods involved death by firing squads or living in confined spaces.
Progress:
Under the Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany it states
Article 3 [Equality before the law]
(3) No person shall be favoured or disfavoured because of sex, parentage, race, language, homeland and origin, faith, or religious or political opinions. No person shall be disfavoured because of disability.
Article 4 [Freedom of faith, conscience, and creed]
(1) Freedom of faith and of conscience, and freedom to profess a religious or philosophical creed, shall be inviolable.
(2) The undisturbed practice of religion shall be guaranteed.
(3) No person shall be compelled against his conscience to render military service involving the use of arms. Details shall be regulated by a federal law.
In effect, giving guaranteed freedom of religious activities in Germany.
A decision by the German Supreme Court in 1995, decreed that the presence of religious symbols (crucifixes) in public institutions to be illegal, excluding in some Roman Catholic elementary schools. Still, it further states that the symbols must be removed if a parent does not agree with them. In the 1950s, a German Jew complained successfully that his freedom of religion was violated by the obligation to speak in a German courtroom decorated by a cross.
Limitations and reasons:
Church Tax
The tax for recognized religious organisations is collected with the regular state tax. Churches in Germany receive the tax which is collected by the state from all registered members. Those who are not members are not required to pay it. Members of a religious community under public law may formally declare to state authorities that they wish to leave the community. With such declaration, the obligation to pay church taxes ends. The concerned religious organisations usually refuse to administer rites of passage, such as marriages and burials of members left. To rejoin a religious organisation, one would simply get one's declaration of re-entry officially recorded. The church tax is historically rooted in the pre-Christian Germanic custom where the chief of the tribe was directly responsible for the maintenance of priests and religious cults.
Fee for 'leaving the church'
In July 2008, it had to be decided whether a fee for leaving the church was in line with the constitution. The court decided it was an infringement of religious liberty. As the state of affairs in August 2008 noted, declaring that one is no longer a member of a churches costs between 10 and 30 € in most federal states. It is free in Berlin, Brandenburg and other areas, though in some places like Baden-Württemberg, it may cost up to 60 €.
Religious Education
Children who do not want to take the obligatory class in religious education may take an alternative class which is called "ethics", in which various issues of philosophy, society, and morals are discussed.
Social aspect
While church and state in Germany are legally separated, Germany has been under the dominating social and cultural influence of one single church, be it Protestant or Roman Catholic. This influence determined the arts, education, customs, lifestyle, and even architecture. Though in eastern Germany urban areas, this cultural influence of religion has been substantially reduced, it is not so in rural areas.
In 2004, the court denied a Muslim teacher the right to wear a headscarf in class, on the basis that she had to be neutral. In the late 1970s, another teacher, was not allowed wear the distinct clothing of his religion.
Cults, sects, and new religious movements
Since the 1990s, German courts have denied the request of the Jehovah's Witnesses several times to become a corporate body under public law for various reasons, one of them being that the Jehovah's Witnesses would discourage their members from taking part in state elections. In March 2005, Jehovah's Witnesses were granted the status of a body of public law for Berlin, on the grounds that the alleged lack of fidelity towards the state had not been convincingly proven.
German courts have come to different decisions on employees and members of Scientology regarding their religious status. The German government considers Scientology "an organization pursuing commercial interests". Scientology is not classified as a non-profit organization in Germany. Germany has been criticized over its treatment of Scientologists in United States human rights and religious freedom reports. In defense, the Germany has said that the German government believed Scientology's "pseudo-scientific courses can seriously jeopardize individuals' mental and physical health, and that it exploits its members."
There have been cases of groups in Germany which practice Germanic neopaganism facing legal sanctions because of their display of symbols such as runes, which prosecutors have deemed illegal under laws against neo-Nazi propaganda.
USA
Past situations:
1. STONE v. GRAHAM. In 1980, the Supreme Court struck down a Kentucky law that required the posting of the Ten Commandments in the public schools classrooms. The Court ruled that posting the Ten Commandments was a form of state sponsored religious indoctrination prohibited by the First Amendment. Posting the Decalogue, the Justices worried, might "induce the school children to read. Meditate upon, perhaps to venerate and obey, the Ten Commandments."
2. Last May, 1986, three Pennsylvania seventh grade students were suspended for passing out a religious newspaper in the hallways of their public school. The paper, Issues and Answers, covers a variety of topics of interests to teenagers -sports figures, sex and dating, social issues, and problems with parents- with a direct Christian content of the newspaper unacceptable, and prohibited its distribution. Believing the order restricted their free speech rights, the students continue to distribute the paper -an action for which they were suspended. The students have sued the school district, and the case is still pending in the courts.
3. Twelve year old Rebecca Higgins was harassed by school authorities in May, 1985, when, after giving a short report on the Bible, she distributed free copies of the New Testament to her classmates. After her report, a math teacher, acting under the school principal, confiscated the New Testaments. At the end of the school day, the New Testaments were returned. But when Rebecca tried to return the New Testaments to her classmates the next morning, she was ordered to the principal's office where she was "interrogated" about her religious beliefs and told that she had broken the law. Rebecca and her parents sued the school district, and the case eventually settled out of court. (1)
4. In 984, Mary May, a teacher's aide at Harper Elementary School District in Evansville, Indiana, filed suit against the school district after she and several co-workers were threatened with dismissal unless they stop holding their weekly early-morning Bible study on school property. Last April, the Seventh U.S. Court of Appeals ruled against May stating, "the school has never been used for meeting unrelated to the business of the school." This, despite of the fact that the school is open for meetings of the PTA, the Boy Scouts, the Girl Scouts, a fine arts group, and others. Thus, at least in Induana, teachers are not permitted to pray or study the Bible together on school property.
Progress:
Freedom of religion was first applied as a principle of government in the founding of the colony of Maryland, founded by the Catholic Lord Baltimore, in 1634.
Fifteen years later (1649) the Maryland Toleration Act, drafted by Lord Baltimore, provided: "[N]o man shall be compelled to frequent or support any religious worship, place, or ministry whatsoever, nor shall be enforced, restrained, molested, or burthened in his body or goods, nor shall otherwise suffer, on account of his religious opinions or belief; but that all men shall be free to profess, and by argument to maintain, their opinions in matters of religion, and that the same shall in no wise diminish, enlarge, or affect their civil capacities."
The Maryland Toleration Act was repealed with the assistance of Protestant assemblymen and a new law barring Catholics from openly practicing their religion was passed. In 1657, the Catholic Lord Baltimore regained control after making a deal with the colony's Protestants, and in 1658 the Act was again passed by the colonial assembly. This time, it would last more than thirty years, until 1692, when after Maryland's Protestant Revolution of 1689, freedom of religion was again rescinded. In addition in 1704, an Act was passed "to prevent the growth of Popery in this Province", preventing Catholics from holding political office. Full religious toleration would not be restored in Maryland until the American Revolution, when Maryland's Charles Carroll of Carrollton signed the American Declaration of Independence.
The United States formally considers religious freedom in its foreign relations. The International Religious Freedom Act of 1998 established the United States Commission on International Religious Freedom which investigates the records of over 200 other nations with respect to religious freedom, and makes recommendations to submit nations with egregious records to ongoing scrutiny and possible economic sanctions. Many human rights organizations have urged the United States to be still more vigorous in imposing sanctions on countries that do not permit or tolerate religious freedom.
Showing posts with label Religious discrimination. Show all posts
Showing posts with label Religious discrimination. Show all posts
Religious Minorities in Myanmar
The great majority of the Myanmar’s population follows Theravada Buddhism. However, there are minorities of Christians, Muslims, Hindus, etc.
There was governmental preference in practice (although not in law) for non-Buddhists during the period of British colonial rule and Buddhists since independence of Myanmar. These mostly led to social tensions between the Buddhist majority and the Christian and Muslim minorities.
In Myanmar, the non-Buddhists are discriminated against in the public sector. Thus far, a non-Buddhist brigadier general served in the Government at ministerial level and is the only non-Buddhist known to have held flag rank in the armed forces during the 1990’s.
The Muslims are discouraged by the Government from entering military service. Christian or Muslim military officers who aspire to promote beyond middle ranks are encouraged to convert to Buddhism.
Union Solidarity and Development Association (USDA), a SPDC provided the financial support for the mass organization distributed anti-Islamic booklets throughout the country.
Members of the Muslim Rohingya minority in Arakan State, on the Myanmar’s western coast, continue to experience strict legal, monetary, and communal discrimination. It is required by Myanmar’s highly restrictive citizenship law that citizenship was given to those whose ancestors live on grounds at the start of the British colonial rule. Hence, citizenship status was not permitted to most Rohingyas who lived on land that their ancestors did not reside at the start of the British colonial rule.
In addition, because the Myanmar Government reserves secondary education for citizens only, Rohingya do not have access to state run schools beyond primary education, and are unable to obtain most civil service positions.
In March 1999 and April 2000, the Government forcibly relocated about 200 Buddhist slum dwellers from Dagon Township in Rangoon to Arakan State. This firstly gotten rid of slums in Rangoon, and secondly increased the population of Buddhist citizens in Arakan State. During the year in Rakhine State, the Government opened several "model villages" for Buddhist families displaced from other areas. The Rohingyas already residing in the area had their land taken away with no payment and were forced to participate in construction and maintenance. In addition, they were forced over and over again to build Buddhist pagodas for the new arrivals.
Since 1994, when the pro-government DKBA was organized, there has been armed conflict between the DKBA and the Christian-led KNU. This armed conflict had strong religious overtones. During the mid-1990's, reports were that it was common DKBA practice to torment Christian villagers and kill them if they refused to convert to Buddhism. After the settling down of DKBA to administering the regions that it had taken control of, the DKBA treatment of Christians improved significantly.
There was governmental preference in practice (although not in law) for non-Buddhists during the period of British colonial rule and Buddhists since independence of Myanmar. These mostly led to social tensions between the Buddhist majority and the Christian and Muslim minorities.
In Myanmar, the non-Buddhists are discriminated against in the public sector. Thus far, a non-Buddhist brigadier general served in the Government at ministerial level and is the only non-Buddhist known to have held flag rank in the armed forces during the 1990’s.
The Muslims are discouraged by the Government from entering military service. Christian or Muslim military officers who aspire to promote beyond middle ranks are encouraged to convert to Buddhism.
Union Solidarity and Development Association (USDA), a SPDC provided the financial support for the mass organization distributed anti-Islamic booklets throughout the country.
Members of the Muslim Rohingya minority in Arakan State, on the Myanmar’s western coast, continue to experience strict legal, monetary, and communal discrimination. It is required by Myanmar’s highly restrictive citizenship law that citizenship was given to those whose ancestors live on grounds at the start of the British colonial rule. Hence, citizenship status was not permitted to most Rohingyas who lived on land that their ancestors did not reside at the start of the British colonial rule.
In addition, because the Myanmar Government reserves secondary education for citizens only, Rohingya do not have access to state run schools beyond primary education, and are unable to obtain most civil service positions.
In March 1999 and April 2000, the Government forcibly relocated about 200 Buddhist slum dwellers from Dagon Township in Rangoon to Arakan State. This firstly gotten rid of slums in Rangoon, and secondly increased the population of Buddhist citizens in Arakan State. During the year in Rakhine State, the Government opened several "model villages" for Buddhist families displaced from other areas. The Rohingyas already residing in the area had their land taken away with no payment and were forced to participate in construction and maintenance. In addition, they were forced over and over again to build Buddhist pagodas for the new arrivals.
Since 1994, when the pro-government DKBA was organized, there has been armed conflict between the DKBA and the Christian-led KNU. This armed conflict had strong religious overtones. During the mid-1990's, reports were that it was common DKBA practice to torment Christian villagers and kill them if they refused to convert to Buddhism. After the settling down of DKBA to administering the regions that it had taken control of, the DKBA treatment of Christians improved significantly.
Maintaining Racial and Religious Harmony in Singapore
Maintaining Racial and Religious Harmony through Censorship
- Content that may rise any unnecessary social unrest/ discontent are censored by Media Development Authority (MDA)
- Smegma - A play deemed to portray Muslims in a negative light was prohibited from being staged in Singapore
==>The Arts Consultative Panel says, "The members were concerned that the play could create unhappiness and disaffection among Muslims."
-Benjamin Koh, 28 and Nicholas Lim, 25, was jailed for one day with fine, $2,960 for posting anti-Muslim remarks on the Internet
==>"The doing of an act which has a seditious tendency to promote feelings of ill-will and hostility between races or classes of the population in Singapore is serious," judge Richard Magnus said in handing down his ruling
==>Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong told a foreign media forum that Singapore wants to ensure that no disaffection takes root among people who might feel excluded in society
Maintaining Racial and Religious Harmony through Social Defence
- Singapore has reached out to their Muslim community to ensure no hard feelings, and at the same time to elicit their help
- The MUIS, the Islamic Religious Council in Singapore, which includes the Mufti of Singapore says, “We condemn terrorism and will not allow Islam to be misused by any individuals or groups for their violent and destructive agendas. The Muslim community has always and will continue to stand united with other fellow Singaporeans to protect this nation against terrorism.”
- Goh Chok Tong says, “I strongly urge our Muslims to speak up against developments which threaten the harmony of our multiracial, multi-religious society. They must stand up against those who advocate intolerance and extremism. They should not allow the extremists and militants to set the Islamic agenda. They should not accept extremist views propagated in some other Muslim societies, as those are aimed at achieving political goals.”
- Ho Peng Kee, explained the importance of the Religious Rehabilitation Group (RRG) says, “We cannot afford to only rely on the police and security services to guarantee our long-term security. Ultimately, it rests on whole communities to come together in a consolidated effort to challenge and defeat the extremist ideologies and keep our society together. Terrorism developments can potentially lead to increased polarization. This is where the public at large can take active steps to build bridges and defuse misunderstandings between and within communities to improve the situation.”
Maintaining Racial and Religious Harmony through Criminal Law
- Article 14(1)(a) of Singapore’s constitution guarantees to every citizen the right to freedom of speech and expression. However, the danger that offensive speech could engender social rifts or civil unrest is ever-present. One of the ways in which Singapore has attempted to deal with this threat is by criminalizing certain types of speech.
- The main Category 1 offence in Singapore is Section 298 of the Penal Code:
“Whoever, with deliberate intention of wounding the religious or racial feelings of any person, utters any word or makes any sound in the hearing of that person, or makes any gesture in the sight of that person, or places any object in the sight of that person, or causes any matter however represented to be seen or heard by that person, shall be punished with imprisonment for a term which may extend to 3 years, or with fine, or with both.”
- Laws criminalizes speech that is, (i) deliberately intended to offend the racial or religious feelings of other, (ii) knowingly promotes or attempts to promote disharmony, (iii) has a tendency to promote disharmony between racial or religious groups, (iv) speech that invites or is likely to incite others to violence that is racially or religiously motivated
- Penalty: Minimal of 3 years imprisonment and/or with fine
*Information collected and compiled from various sources.
- Content that may rise any unnecessary social unrest/ discontent are censored by Media Development Authority (MDA)
- Smegma - A play deemed to portray Muslims in a negative light was prohibited from being staged in Singapore
==>The Arts Consultative Panel says, "The members were concerned that the play could create unhappiness and disaffection among Muslims."
-Benjamin Koh, 28 and Nicholas Lim, 25, was jailed for one day with fine, $2,960 for posting anti-Muslim remarks on the Internet
==>"The doing of an act which has a seditious tendency to promote feelings of ill-will and hostility between races or classes of the population in Singapore is serious," judge Richard Magnus said in handing down his ruling
==>Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong told a foreign media forum that Singapore wants to ensure that no disaffection takes root among people who might feel excluded in society
Maintaining Racial and Religious Harmony through Social Defence
- Singapore has reached out to their Muslim community to ensure no hard feelings, and at the same time to elicit their help
- The MUIS, the Islamic Religious Council in Singapore, which includes the Mufti of Singapore says, “We condemn terrorism and will not allow Islam to be misused by any individuals or groups for their violent and destructive agendas. The Muslim community has always and will continue to stand united with other fellow Singaporeans to protect this nation against terrorism.”
- Goh Chok Tong says, “I strongly urge our Muslims to speak up against developments which threaten the harmony of our multiracial, multi-religious society. They must stand up against those who advocate intolerance and extremism. They should not allow the extremists and militants to set the Islamic agenda. They should not accept extremist views propagated in some other Muslim societies, as those are aimed at achieving political goals.”
- Ho Peng Kee, explained the importance of the Religious Rehabilitation Group (RRG) says, “We cannot afford to only rely on the police and security services to guarantee our long-term security. Ultimately, it rests on whole communities to come together in a consolidated effort to challenge and defeat the extremist ideologies and keep our society together. Terrorism developments can potentially lead to increased polarization. This is where the public at large can take active steps to build bridges and defuse misunderstandings between and within communities to improve the situation.”
Maintaining Racial and Religious Harmony through Criminal Law
- Article 14(1)(a) of Singapore’s constitution guarantees to every citizen the right to freedom of speech and expression. However, the danger that offensive speech could engender social rifts or civil unrest is ever-present. One of the ways in which Singapore has attempted to deal with this threat is by criminalizing certain types of speech.
- The main Category 1 offence in Singapore is Section 298 of the Penal Code:
“Whoever, with deliberate intention of wounding the religious or racial feelings of any person, utters any word or makes any sound in the hearing of that person, or makes any gesture in the sight of that person, or places any object in the sight of that person, or causes any matter however represented to be seen or heard by that person, shall be punished with imprisonment for a term which may extend to 3 years, or with fine, or with both.”
- Laws criminalizes speech that is, (i) deliberately intended to offend the racial or religious feelings of other, (ii) knowingly promotes or attempts to promote disharmony, (iii) has a tendency to promote disharmony between racial or religious groups, (iv) speech that invites or is likely to incite others to violence that is racially or religiously motivated
- Penalty: Minimal of 3 years imprisonment and/or with fine
*Information collected and compiled from various sources.
Restrictions in religious freedom in Singapore
Although the Constitution in Singapore has provided freedom of religion, citizens of Singapore still face certain restrictions, one of the restriction being that every citizen or person in the country has a constitutional right to profess, practice, or propagate his or her religious belief so long as such activities do not breach any other laws relating to public order, public health, or morality.
On top of that, the Government has also restricted certain religious groups using the Societies Act. In 1982 the Minister for Home Affairs dissolved the Holy Spirit Association for the Unification of World Christianity, also known as the Unification Church. In 1972 the Government deregistered and banned the Singapore Congregation of Jehovah's Witnesses on the grounds that its existence was prejudicial to public welfare and order because its members refuse to perform military service (obligatory for all male citizens), salute the flag, or swear oaths of allegiance to the state. At the time, there were approximately 200 Jehovah's Witnesses in the country; as of 2007 there were approximately two thousand. Although the Court of Appeals in 1996 upheld the rights of members of Jehovah's Witnesses to profess, practice, and propagate their religious belief, and the Government does not arrest members for being believers, the result of deregistration has been to make public meetings of Jehovah's Witnesses illegal.
The Government has also attempted to influence religious practice through the Maintenance of Religious Harmony Act. The act was passed in 1990 and revised in 2001 in response to actions that the Government viewed as threats to religious harmony. This includes aggressive and "insensitive" proselytizing and "the mixing of religion and politics." The act established the Presidential Council on Religious Harmony, which reports to the Minister of Home Affairs and is empowered to issue restraining orders against leaders and members of religious groups to prevent them from carrying out political activities, "exciting disaffection against" the Government, creating "ill will" between religious groups, or carrying out subversive activities. These orders place individuals on notice that they should not repeat such acts; contravening a restraining order can result in fines of up to $6,622 (SGD 10,000) and up to two years' imprisonment for a first offense. The act also prohibits judicial review of its enforcement or of any possible denial of rights arising from it.
Missionaries, with the exception of members of Jehovah's Witnesses and representatives of the Unification Church, are permitted to work and to publish and distribute religious texts. However, while the Government does not prohibit evangelical activities, in practice it discourages activities that might upset the balance of intercommunal relations. As of 2007, authorities did not detain any Jehovah's Witnesses for proselytizing.
The Government has banned all written materials published by the International Bible Students Association and the Watchtower Bible and Tract Society, both publishing arms of the Jehovah's Witnesses. In practice this has led to confiscation of Bibles published by the groups, although the Bible itself has not been outlawed. A person in possession of banned literature can be fined up to SGD 2,000 (USD 1,324) and jailed up to 12 months for a first conviction.
There were no government seizures of Jehovah's Witnesses literature already in the country during the previous 12 month period. In August 2006 one individual was detained briefly for attempting to bring Jehovah's Witnesses publications into the country from Malaysia. In this instance, the literature was confiscated and he was convicted of smuggling prohibited media. Authorities fined the individual SGD 6,000 (USD 3,846).
There were reports of Jehovah's Witnesses students being suspended from school for refusing to sing the national anthem or participate in the flag ceremony.
There were 23 members of Jehovah's Witnesses incarcerated in the armed forces detention barracks because they refused to carry out the legal obligation for all male citizens to serve in the armed forces. The initial sentence for failure to comply with the military service requirement is 15 months' imprisonment, to which 24 months are added upon a second refusal. Failure to perform annual military reserve duty, which is required of all those who have completed their initial two-year obligation, results in 40 sentences; a 12 month sentence is usual after four such refusals. All of the Jehovah's Witnesses in detention were incarcerated for failing to perform their initial military obligations and expect to serve a total of 39 months.
The Compulsory Education Act of 2000 mandates attendance at public schools for all children, with few exceptions. In response to concern from the Malay/Muslim community regarding the fate of madrassahs, the Government temporarily exempted madrassah students from compulsory school attendance, allowing attendance at a madrassah in lieu of a public school. However, according to local press reports, if a madrassah does not meet minimum academic standards by 2008, its students would have to transfer either to a madrassah that does meet such standards or to a public school.
On top of that, the Government has also restricted certain religious groups using the Societies Act. In 1982 the Minister for Home Affairs dissolved the Holy Spirit Association for the Unification of World Christianity, also known as the Unification Church. In 1972 the Government deregistered and banned the Singapore Congregation of Jehovah's Witnesses on the grounds that its existence was prejudicial to public welfare and order because its members refuse to perform military service (obligatory for all male citizens), salute the flag, or swear oaths of allegiance to the state. At the time, there were approximately 200 Jehovah's Witnesses in the country; as of 2007 there were approximately two thousand. Although the Court of Appeals in 1996 upheld the rights of members of Jehovah's Witnesses to profess, practice, and propagate their religious belief, and the Government does not arrest members for being believers, the result of deregistration has been to make public meetings of Jehovah's Witnesses illegal.
The Government has also attempted to influence religious practice through the Maintenance of Religious Harmony Act. The act was passed in 1990 and revised in 2001 in response to actions that the Government viewed as threats to religious harmony. This includes aggressive and "insensitive" proselytizing and "the mixing of religion and politics." The act established the Presidential Council on Religious Harmony, which reports to the Minister of Home Affairs and is empowered to issue restraining orders against leaders and members of religious groups to prevent them from carrying out political activities, "exciting disaffection against" the Government, creating "ill will" between religious groups, or carrying out subversive activities. These orders place individuals on notice that they should not repeat such acts; contravening a restraining order can result in fines of up to $6,622 (SGD 10,000) and up to two years' imprisonment for a first offense. The act also prohibits judicial review of its enforcement or of any possible denial of rights arising from it.
Missionaries, with the exception of members of Jehovah's Witnesses and representatives of the Unification Church, are permitted to work and to publish and distribute religious texts. However, while the Government does not prohibit evangelical activities, in practice it discourages activities that might upset the balance of intercommunal relations. As of 2007, authorities did not detain any Jehovah's Witnesses for proselytizing.
The Government has banned all written materials published by the International Bible Students Association and the Watchtower Bible and Tract Society, both publishing arms of the Jehovah's Witnesses. In practice this has led to confiscation of Bibles published by the groups, although the Bible itself has not been outlawed. A person in possession of banned literature can be fined up to SGD 2,000 (USD 1,324) and jailed up to 12 months for a first conviction.
There were no government seizures of Jehovah's Witnesses literature already in the country during the previous 12 month period. In August 2006 one individual was detained briefly for attempting to bring Jehovah's Witnesses publications into the country from Malaysia. In this instance, the literature was confiscated and he was convicted of smuggling prohibited media. Authorities fined the individual SGD 6,000 (USD 3,846).
There were reports of Jehovah's Witnesses students being suspended from school for refusing to sing the national anthem or participate in the flag ceremony.
There were 23 members of Jehovah's Witnesses incarcerated in the armed forces detention barracks because they refused to carry out the legal obligation for all male citizens to serve in the armed forces. The initial sentence for failure to comply with the military service requirement is 15 months' imprisonment, to which 24 months are added upon a second refusal. Failure to perform annual military reserve duty, which is required of all those who have completed their initial two-year obligation, results in 40 sentences; a 12 month sentence is usual after four such refusals. All of the Jehovah's Witnesses in detention were incarcerated for failing to perform their initial military obligations and expect to serve a total of 39 months.
The Compulsory Education Act of 2000 mandates attendance at public schools for all children, with few exceptions. In response to concern from the Malay/Muslim community regarding the fate of madrassahs, the Government temporarily exempted madrassah students from compulsory school attendance, allowing attendance at a madrassah in lieu of a public school. However, according to local press reports, if a madrassah does not meet minimum academic standards by 2008, its students would have to transfer either to a madrassah that does meet such standards or to a public school.
Constitutional Provisions and Legislation Relating to Religion
The following discusses about the laws that Japan set in order to prevent religious discrimination and to safeguard the interest of religious groups.
Japan's Constitution vests sovereignty in the people, and defines the Emperor as the symbol of state. Provisions in Japan’s Constitution relating to religious liberty are as follows:
Article 11: The people shall not be prevented from enjoying any of the fundamental human rights. These fundamental human rights guaranteed to the people by this Constitution shall be conferred upon the people of this and future generations as eternal and inviolate rights.
Article 12: The freedom and rights guaranteed to the people by this Constitution shall be maintained by the constant endeavor of the people, who shall refrain from any abuse of these freedoms and rights and shall always be responsible for utilizing them for the public welfare.
Article 14: All of the people are equal under the law and there shall be no discrimination in political, economic or social relations because of race, creed, sex, social status or family origin.
Article 19: Freedom of thought and conscience shall not be violated.
Article 20: Freedom of religion is guaranteed to all. No religious organization shall receive any privileges from the State, nor exercise any political authority.
No person shall be compelled to take part in any religious act, celebration, rite or practice.
Article 21: Freedom of assembly and association as well as speech, press and all other forms of expression are guaranteed.
No censorship shall be maintained, nor shall the secrecy of any means of communication be violated.
Japan's Constitution vests sovereignty in the people, and defines the Emperor as the symbol of state. Provisions in Japan’s Constitution relating to religious liberty are as follows:
Article 11: The people shall not be prevented from enjoying any of the fundamental human rights. These fundamental human rights guaranteed to the people by this Constitution shall be conferred upon the people of this and future generations as eternal and inviolate rights.
Article 12: The freedom and rights guaranteed to the people by this Constitution shall be maintained by the constant endeavor of the people, who shall refrain from any abuse of these freedoms and rights and shall always be responsible for utilizing them for the public welfare.
Article 14: All of the people are equal under the law and there shall be no discrimination in political, economic or social relations because of race, creed, sex, social status or family origin.
Article 19: Freedom of thought and conscience shall not be violated.
Article 20: Freedom of religion is guaranteed to all. No religious organization shall receive any privileges from the State, nor exercise any political authority.
No person shall be compelled to take part in any religious act, celebration, rite or practice.
Article 21: Freedom of assembly and association as well as speech, press and all other forms of expression are guaranteed.
No censorship shall be maintained, nor shall the secrecy of any means of communication be violated.
Religious Discrimination in japan
The Ainu are an indigenous group mainly living in Hokkaido The Tokugawa Shogunate tried to develop Hokkaido to counter Russia's growing influence in the Far East, but mostly left the place for the native Ainu. Then the Meiji government started development programs, increasingly aimed at assimilating the Ainu, outlawing Ainu language and restricting them to farming on government-provided plots.
Many of the Ainu were also used in slave-like conditions by the Japanese fishing industry. As the Japanese government encouraged immigration of ethnic Japanese to populate Hokkaido, the Ainu became increasingly marginalised in their own land.
At present, fewer than 20,000 Ainu are considered racially distinct. Most, if not all, of the Ainu in Japan are of mixed ancestry. 80-90% of Ainu now either ignore or don't know of their Ainu identity. Many customs and traditions of the Ainu have been lost, abandoned or annihilated by way of assimilation, and the Ainu language is no longer in common use.
Only in the decades after World War II have the Ainu started to become aware of international aboriginal rights movements. Thus, as of late, some schools in Hokkaido have been established to preserve and revive the Ainu culture.
Many of the Ainu were also used in slave-like conditions by the Japanese fishing industry. As the Japanese government encouraged immigration of ethnic Japanese to populate Hokkaido, the Ainu became increasingly marginalised in their own land.
At present, fewer than 20,000 Ainu are considered racially distinct. Most, if not all, of the Ainu in Japan are of mixed ancestry. 80-90% of Ainu now either ignore or don't know of their Ainu identity. Many customs and traditions of the Ainu have been lost, abandoned or annihilated by way of assimilation, and the Ainu language is no longer in common use.
Only in the decades after World War II have the Ainu started to become aware of international aboriginal rights movements. Thus, as of late, some schools in Hokkaido have been established to preserve and revive the Ainu culture.
Religious Discrimination in japan
Mainland Chinese are the second largest minority in Japan after Koreans. Mainland Chinese in particular have been targets of anti-immigrant sentiment along with government, police and media portrayal of them as being likely to commit crime.
Indeed, an investigator from the
United Nations Commission on Human Rights (UNCHR) said, racism against Koreans and Chinese is deeply rooted in Japan because of history and culture.
Indeed, an investigator from the
United Nations Commission on Human Rights (UNCHR) said, racism against Koreans and Chinese is deeply rooted in Japan because of history and culture.
Japan's Shinto
Shinto is Japan's indigenous religion, an animist faith which advocates the worship of nature gods. The Japanese adopted Buddhism and Confucianism from China, and have changed Buddhism into distinctly Japanese forms: Jodo, Shingon, Nicheren, and Zen. Many Japanese observe both Shinto and Buddhist rituals. The religions of Japan include Buddhism, Christianity, Confucianism, and Shintoism. Japan is an ethnically homogeneous nation: it is over 99% Japanese, half a percent Korean, and a tenth of a percent Chinese. Ethnic homogeneity can lead to religious harmony, as most citizens hold the same beliefs, but it can also lead to religious discrimination if minority rights are not respected.
Although the Constitution mandates freedom of religion, the Court interprets freedom of religion provisions in a manner that defers to community standards and favors Shinto.
Even so, violations of religious liberty do not occur overtly. In its map of “Suppression of Religious Liberty around the World,” Christian Solidarity International states that Japan commits “no major or minor violations of basic religious liberties.”
Although the Constitution mandates freedom of religion, the Court interprets freedom of religion provisions in a manner that defers to community standards and favors Shinto.
Even so, violations of religious liberty do not occur overtly. In its map of “Suppression of Religious Liberty around the World,” Christian Solidarity International states that Japan commits “no major or minor violations of basic religious liberties.”
Religious Discrimination in japan
Japanese law does not allow dual citizenship, and until the 1980s required adoption of a Japanese name for citizenship. Partially for this reason, many Zainichi did not obtain Japanese citizenship as they saw the process to be humiliating.
Although more Zainichi are becoming Japanese citizens, issues of identity remain complicated. Even those who do not choose to become Japanese citizens often use Japanese names to avoid discrimination and live their lives as if they were Japanese. This is in contrast with the Chinese living in Japan, who generally use their Chinese names and openly form Chinatown communities.
The Diène report identifies Zainichi Koreans as those who have been most discriminated against in Japan, for example in employment, housing and marriage.
An increase in tensions between Japan and North Korea in the late 1990s led to a surge of attacks against Chongryon, the pro-North residents organisation, including a pattern of assaults against Korean schoolgirls in Japan.
For a long time, Chongryon enjoyed unofficial immunity from searches and investigations, although it has long been suspected of a variety of criminal acts on behalf of North Korea, such as illegal transfer of funds to North Korea and espionage.
- Zheng Yong
Although more Zainichi are becoming Japanese citizens, issues of identity remain complicated. Even those who do not choose to become Japanese citizens often use Japanese names to avoid discrimination and live their lives as if they were Japanese. This is in contrast with the Chinese living in Japan, who generally use their Chinese names and openly form Chinatown communities.
The Diène report identifies Zainichi Koreans as those who have been most discriminated against in Japan, for example in employment, housing and marriage.
An increase in tensions between Japan and North Korea in the late 1990s led to a surge of attacks against Chongryon, the pro-North residents organisation, including a pattern of assaults against Korean schoolgirls in Japan.
For a long time, Chongryon enjoyed unofficial immunity from searches and investigations, although it has long been suspected of a variety of criminal acts on behalf of North Korea, such as illegal transfer of funds to North Korea and espionage.
- Zheng Yong
Religious Discrimination-Japan
Especially after the immediate aftermath of the war, the legal status of Korean and Taiwanese are not clear. Occupying American force enjoyed an immunity from Japanese legal force. Some Korean and Taiwanese come to insist that, since they belong to the liberated third country, they are no longer under the jurisdiction of Japanese Imperial government. This has resulted many poor Chinese (of Taiwan) and Korean, suppressed under colonial rule, forming criminal gangs to run thriving Yamiichi, black market which was against rationing regime which continued after the war. Occasional crash of these riotous gangs and Japanese police, was widely reported by newspaper at the time. Much of these rioters were reported with reference to the term "Sangokujin". Soon, many Japanese start to associate the term, Sangokujin with criminal behavior of ex colonial.
The governor later stated, "What is wrong with calling Sangokujins Sangokujins?" insisting that the term is a neutral reference to Zainich population for his generation. This has provoked much discussion about the political correctness of the term. However, the usage of the term later become explicitly derogatory, primary due to the fact that the word is now used exclusively by the right wing element of Japanese political discourse. Therefore, the question of whether the term "was" derogatory is now moot.
Religious Discrimination in Japan
Japan is a country where few people believe strongly in religious, political or philosophical ideas. In other words, morals and ideals are not a major concern, because people rely a lot on common sense and values inculcated by the education system or the society. Japan is a very collectivist country when it comes to rules. People usually don't do things that are frown upon, but also tend to do things that might be considered immoral in other countries, just because "everybody" (=many people) else does it (eg. political corruption, teenage prostitution...).
http://www.jref.com/society/discrimination_in_japan.shtml
http://www.jref.com/society/discrimination_in_japan.shtml
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