Gender roles across the world have been more or less similar till the age of industrialization beaconed on human civilization. However, while in the Western world, the differences in the gender roles have considerably narrowed, in India they have merely been modified to adopt to new interesting dimensions of modern Indian society.
In pre modern times, the amount of labor required to sustain a household was substantial. So in the farms or in the ranch, almost every member of the family contributed with something. Even then, there was always a clear division of labor. While the menfolk managed the more labor intensive, outdoor work, the women took up the responsibility of taking care of the food, home and children. This can be said to be more or less common to most of the world, particularly the agricultural societies.
An aspect of gender-role spillover is the perception by men that when a large number of women are in a particular job, the prestige of the job is lowered.
In policing, men, who have always regarded law enforcement as a male domain, were likewise resistant and resentful to increasing numbers of women in their midst. They believed that "if a woman can do the job," it was no longer of high status.
The gender-role spillover of males into female dominated professions has had the opposite effect, and typically has required lower numbers of men (about 10%) to actually increase' the prestige of the job
In Afghanistan, women's work varies from group to group. Among most settled rural families, women participate in agricultural work only during light harvesting periods, and are responsible for the production of milk products. Some specialize in handicrafts such as carpet and felt making. In contrast, Nuristani women plow the fields while the men herd the flocks and process the dairy products. Nomadic women care for young lambs and kids and make a wide variety of dairy products, for sale as well as family use. They spin the wool sheared by men and weave the fabric from which their tents are made. Felt-making for yurt coverings and household rugs is also a female activity. When on the move, it is the women who put up and take down the tents. The variations are endless
Although statistics indicate that by 1978 women were joining the workforce in increasing numbers, only about eight percent of the female population received an income. Most of these women lived in urban centers, and the majority were professionals, technicians and administrators employed by the government which continued its strong support. A majority worked in health and education, the two sectors considered most appropriate for women as they are extensions of traditional women's roles. Others worked in the police, the army, and with the airlines; in government textile, ceramic, food processing and prefab construction factories. A few worked in private industry; a few were self-employed.
Growing access to education
Iran also boasts a fairly relatively high literacy rate for women. According to the 1991 census, 67.1 percent of the total female population over the age of six (14.9 million) were literate. Today 65 percent of university entrants are women.
With the opening of girls' schools came women's employment in education - as teachers and headmistresses. Teaching was one of the first professions for women in Iran and they still compose a significant portion of schoolteachers. Some 46 percent of school teachers are female and if you include administrative staff, the numbers are certainly higher.
"The effects of women's strong participation in universities, I think, will be seen in the future. With all of these graduates, society will inevitably have to deal with them and their increased demands for employment and having a say in public matters," Shekarloo maintained
Education is a way out of the home, a way into increased independence and freedom of movement, and a way to postpone marriage, according to Shekarloo.
Although the mean age of marriage across the country has risen to 20, in rural areas earlier marriage is still common. This can create difficulties for young married women who are not permitted to attend school with unmarried women, and therefore tend to stop going to school, according to the International Planed Parenthood Federation (IPPF).
More women professionals
These days in Iran women have a presence in most professions in this traditionally male-dominated society, with many employed by the state and public sector.
There are an emerging number of women setting up their own businesses, and women are now active in all fields of the economic and political spectrums.
These activities cover a broad range of professions ranging from the legal and medical fields to serving as members of Iran's police forces.
In 1976, 13 percent of all economically active females held professional occupations, according to the United Nations Population Fund [UNFPA]. By 1986, this percentage had risen to 32.8 percent and by 1991 had further increased to 39.7 percent.
"Women are taking the initiative. For example, a few of them will get together with some sewing machines, and start manufacturing clothes," Shekarloo remarked.
These gains are bolstered by some aspects of Iran's institutional framework. For example, women's rights in the workplace are strengthened by the country’s labour laws and codes, which comply with all international norms pertaining to women's rights in the workplace.
But there is still much work to be done at the grass roots level, according to Shekarloo. "Iran's economy is still dominated by the bazaar which is quite traditional and male-dominated," she said.
The 1979 Revolution
The 1979 overthrow of the Iran’s hereditary monarch, Shah Muhammad Reza Pahlavi, after decades of corrupt and authoritarian rule, ushered in the world’s first Islamic republic and a period women’s rights in Iran would be shaped by the ruling clique’s interpretation shari’ah law.
The revolution, headed by the previously exiled religious cleric Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, was immediately followed by an unstable and bloody period, including an eight-year war against neighbouring Iraq.
In December 1979, Farrokhru Parsa, the female minister of education was executed after being accused of promoting prostitution, corrupting the earth, and "warring against God."
New education policies prevented women from enrolling in the fields of engineering, agriculture and finance as these were deemed to be male professions. However, women were still encouraged to enter the field of medicine.
In addition, daycare centres closed, and women were denied the right to divorce and obtain custody of their children if divorced. The age of consent for marriage was lowered from 15- to 13-years and contraception and abortion were also banned.
Following the death of Khomeini in June 1989, and the subsequent appointment of the then President Khamenei as Iran’s spiritual leader, some initial moves towards reform were seen. For example, government family planning activities, which had been halted in 1979, were re-started and led to a dramatic rise in the prevalence of contraceptives in the country, according to the IPPF.
The victory of President Muhammad Khatami’s liberals over the long-ruling conservative elite in parliamentary elections in April 2000, and his re-election for a second presidential term in June 2001, has buttressed the reformists and opened the door to an era of social and political transformation in the country.
In the high streets of central Tehran, for example, scores of Iranian women can be seen wearing western clothes covered by a stylish three-quarter-length coat, in place of a traditional full-length manto, complete with a fashionable designer headscarf.
But some aspects of life are still restricted. In restaurants across the capital and elsewhere, women are forced to keep their mantoes and scarves on as they sit down to eat breakfast, lunch or dinner.
"The mixture of western clothes with the headscarf is the paradox of our society. Yes times have changed under the reformist government, but we must remember what it was like before the revolution and we still have a long way to go," Shahla Lahiji told IRIN. She spoke of the pre-revolution days when men and women were more or less equally treated and said much more needed to be done to improve women's rights.
The female publisher has already paid a price for her passion to improve the rights of women. In 2000, she was jailed after speaking against the government at a women’s conference in Berlin. "I was sentenced to four years but after an appeal and a heavy fine I was in jail for two months," she explained.
The relative freedom of the press is regarded by many as one of the greatest achievements of Khatami’s reformist administration, and has meant the press has become a target for conservatives in their power struggle with reformists, according to the BBC.
Sixteen reformist newspapers were closed and several prominent journalists jailed in April 2000, and in December a court ordered the top-selling daily newspaper, Hamshahri, to restrict its distribution to the capital, Tehran, the BBC says.
At present there are some 500 female publishers in Tehran, according to Lahiji, who also celebrated the number of female filmmakers in Iran, calling it a remarkable achievement. "The best film makers here are women and it is fantastic and very positive," she maintained.
The recent changes and improvements that have taken place have also encouraged a return of qualified Iranians from abroad. "At the end of the day we love our country and this is where we want to be," Rehmina Zaraki told IRIN in Tehran, having returned to her homeland after spending 12 years in San Francisco. Zaraki said her decision to return was also based on her understanding of the changes for women.
The legal struggle
Despite the undoubted moves towards social liberalisation under Khatami’s government, his support for greater social and political freedoms has often put him at odds with conservative groups keen to maintain established Islamic traditions.
The president is thought to hold little real power under the constraints of a political system that remains restrictive despite some political and economic reforms. As a result conservatives have been able to use the courts and mosques to limit liberalization.
The ongoing tussle between the reformist and traditional camps has given rise, in some areas, to a degree of ambiguity in both society and the law in the treatment of women’s rights.
For example, under shari’ah law women in Iran are not allowed in public in the company of a man who is not related to her. However, only very few random checks are made on cars and then mostly only during religious festivals.
"Laws still discriminate against women. For example, if a woman wants to leave the country she has to get permission from her husband," Lahiji told IRIN. "If a woman divorces her husband and her children are of a certain age then they will remain with the father," she said..
According to many women’s rights activists, while the reformists have taken up issues such as domestic violence, they are less willing to tackle some of the public restrictions still placed on women.
Transforming many of the social norms inherited from the revolutionary phase has its counterpart in similar attempts to challenge the legal basis of some of those norms.
With 13 female MPs in the 290-member Iranian parliament, legal change has at times been slow, although there is a growing sense that the need for women’s rights is gaining greater recognition. "Some of the laws restricting married women and single mothers have been changed," reformist MP, Fatemeh Rakei told IRIN in Tehran.
In 1999 a law was passed by parliament allowing judges to award custody of minor children to the mother in divorce cases if it was deemed that the best interests of the child would be served. Prior to the enactment of that law, the father would have automatically been given custody.
However, there is still a lack of awareness among women of some of the legal changes, particularly in the rural areas, according to IPPF.
In addition, there is some resistance to changing the law in favour of greater freedoms for women. Also in 1999 a bill was passed in parliament making it a crime "to create division between women and men through defending [women’s] rights outside the legal and shari’ah frameworks," and also sought to ban pictures of unveiled women appearing in the press. The bill has yet to become law, but did pass a second reading in parliament in August 1999.
Notably, Iran is yet to sign the UN Convention for the elimination of all forms of discrimination against women adopted by the UN in 1979, the same year as the Iranian revolution.
Although the Iranian Constitution particularly provides for the important role of women in all aspects of society and the economy, it is still based heavily on shari’ah law. A 12-member judicial body – the Council of Guardians - exists to, among other things, ensure that any new legislation is in accordance with the constitution and with shari’ah
In addition, an Assembly of Experts, elected by universal suffrage but consisting entirely of clerics, decides on religious and spiritual matters, including the appointment of the country’s spiritual leader (the Wali Faqih).
In the opinion of Fatemeh Rakei, the only way to progress was to look onwards and upwards. "I hope we reach a new state which brings a new look to the laws on punishment and recruitment of women and that the parliament accepts our struggle without too much of a struggle," she added.
Rakei said one of her main concerns over the future of women in Iran was the type of employment available for women and the dearth of women in senior positions. "We don’t have many women in high positions and this is something we need to work on."
One encouraging sign lies in the appointment of Iran's first female Vice-President, Dr Masoumeh Ebtekar is one of seven vice-presidents in President Khatami's Cabinet. A 37-year-old university professor with a Ph.D. in immunology and a mother of two, Ebtekar holds the portfolio of environmental affairs and is responsible for a staff of three thousand personnel at the Environmental Department.
Meanwhile, at the women-only Internet café in Tehran, the mixed feelings of Liberation and caution will take time to change. "The headscarf is part of my religion and I don’t mind wearing it. But it is a nice feeling to have the choice," student Rohi Akbari told IRIN.
In case of India, there have been many peculiarities in the role of women, right from the ancient times. The single biggest feature of society which lead to these characteristics was the extreme family centric nature of the society, where it was considered the primary duty of every individual to submit himself or herself to the interests and diktats of the family. The family did not mean just the couple and their children. It often included several generations, and a lot of second and even third degree relatives. This meant that every single decision in the family was actually taken by a lot of people. The custom of arranged marriage, where the bride and groom often used to be total strangers till the point of their marriage was also an offshoot of this very philosophy.
In such a society, the degree of independence available to any individual was limited, but menfolk, who often had to go out, had a greater freedom compared to the womenfolk who were mostly confined to home and had lesser individual freedom. Ironically, in every family, younger women were controlled largely by the elder women, creating the 'mother-in-law - daughter-in-law' syndrome where the young bride faced many restrictions in her daily family, but applied the same restrictions to the next generation when her position changed to that of mother-in-law.
This also denotes the fact that mother traditionally has a very powerful place in the Indian family. Mother is traditionally closer to children, and when the children grow up, her influence is often greater than even the father, who is considered the head of the family. Thus the whole of Indian literature, from ancient times onwards, glorifies mother as the most important, most sacrificing and the noblest person in the universe. The Indian mythology glorifies mother as the goddess, and in Hindu religion, the almighty god is worshiped as much in a female form as it is worshiped in the form of a male. As a would-be mother, young unmarried girls are considered a symbol of purity, and an object of great respect, and thus their security and dignity considered a matter of greatest importance, to be preserved even at the cost of the lives of other members of the family.
There are certain other features of Indian society which add further dimensions to the role of genders. Womenfolk are traditionally associated with the honor of the family, and their character and conduct is also a matter of social prestige, wherein any lapse is considered unacceptable. Since marriages were arranged, dating and pre-marital love were not socially permissible. All these norms and traditions strengthened the restrictions placed on the younger women. Formal education was limited to only male members, and that too only for a small section of the society. In most other families, education was informal and imparted by parents and elders.
After marriage, the bride traditionally shifts to the groom's family and become its permanent member. Thus daughter in law is considered a more intimate member of the family compared to the daughter. She is supposed to be the custodian of all family traditions, takes care of the kitchen, household and children, respect all elders in the family and be affectionate to all who are younger to her. The younger members of the family are also expected to respect her like an elder, just as they would respect their mother or elder sister in a highly hierarchical family tradition. With several married brothers in the family, often there would be more than one bride, and the younger ones would be expected to respect and follow the elder ones.
The married man was expected to earn for the family, along with other male members, in whatever way he could, and a male who was unable to earn enough for the family was not respected by the society. The womenfolk of the family were, however, not supposed to indulge in any business, and were expected to take care of the household only, though within the household they could raise cattle, poultry, grow food, prepare clothing or woolen and indulge in similar domestic enterprises. With the exception of poor labor families, whose women may work as maids to assist richer families in the neighborhood, working of women was not appreciated.
Ironically, the life of womenfolk in the villages was relatively more independent than in the urban centers, as the rural society had a strong bonding, everybody knew everybody, and the social values were much more enshrined than the urban world where every person was anonymous and none trusted another. This provided a degree of security and mutual trust because of which restrictions on women were relatively less in rural societies.
Since the beginning of the twentieth century, all these characteristics have undergone a gradual change. Women began to join formal schooling, and educated women also got selected in prestigious jobs. They began to join all streams of education and profession. However, there are still some reservations in the society against career women. Social values still dictate that the women should sacrifice their careers for the sake of their family. As a result, most educated women, even in contemporary India, prefer to hold family and children as their first priority. Now as the tradition of joint family is giving to small nuclear family in urban India, many families consist of both working members. However, a working women is still expected to carry out the responsibilities of the household, though sometimes their spouse may be willing to offer a helping hand.
With time, the role of women across different classes has also changed. In affluent class, there are practically few restrictions on women's education and working, but there they also retain the option of being housewives, with maids and servants at their disposal, doing practically nothing except socializing and killing time. This option is not available to males irrespective of their wealth.
Among the middle class, the girls are now studying and working, but the traditional expectations still continue. So a working woman is often supposed to take care of the household, even though she may be spending as much time as her husband in the workplace, and even if she earns as much. In the lower labor class, both men and women have to work to sustain themselves, and the gender roles are not very different, except that the women generally have the monopoly over child rearing responsibilities.
The role of women is constantly changing in modern India, and so are her aspirations. The sexual freedom has also arrived during the last couple of decades, with the modern women not afraid of experimenting with extra marital sex. Divorces were a rare phenomenon in Indian society, but today their numbers are on the rise. Family still remains the center point of society, but individualism is slowly replacing it.
In modern India, which embraces the Western values while clutching to the Indian traditions at the same time, a wide spectrum of options has emerged for women. On one hand, there are families where women are carrying on with the age old traditions with an almost religious faith, while on the other hand, there are women who are as independent and individualistic as any women anywhere else in the world. In this mix, anything and everything is possible, and it is often a matter of personal and family preferences that govern the role of women.
Gender role in India has various aspects because the Indian society itself has grown differently, influenced by numerous economic, social, literary and environmental factors.
There is one class of India which is highly educated, constantly looking for new avenues of development, bettering its standard of living with every passing year and which is very much in sync with the ways of the developed countries. It is in this class that the gap between gender roles is getting smaller and smaller. What was considered a man's job once upon a time is readily done by females too and vice versa.
Then there is the rural India, still not hundred percent literate, trying to discover ways to make the transition from under-developed to developing and where the caste where you are born still defines the vocation you can follow and the gender determines what you can not do. It is this India where gender roles have not changed much since centuries. The traditional way of life still holds good and is considered essential for the smooth functioning of a family.
To explain more, India's views on gender roles are dual in nature, the traditional and the contemporary
Traditional
Gender roles are very specific in this kind of an environment. Men of the house earn money and women stay at home, doing the needful to manage home and children. There is no question on interchanging roles here; the division is more or less strictly adhered to. It is a male dominated society where the male earns money and also decides on how it will be spent. Most decisions are taken by and in favor of the males; women have little say in matters that don't concern them. They are homemakers but unfortunately, even at home they have little authority over things. It hurts me to accept this fact but sadly, the female gender is expected to compromise and sacrifice at any point of time to suit their male counterpart. It may appear to be a very primitive way of living, but that's how it is and that's the way it works too.
Contemporary
This is the India which looks like it matches the gender role with most developed countries in the world. Women are as educated, sometimes even more than men and their presence can be witnessed in every possible occupation and vocation. This is the new age India where gender does not really define the kind of work that can be done at home or outside home. Women efficiently juggle work and home and kids with the support of their partners. Husbands willingly lend a helping hand in the kitchen, earlier considered only a woman's forte and women earn as much based on their experience, expertise and qualifications. The gender role does come into force temporarily when there are kids in the picture as there are certain things that only a mother can do, but there too, men are gaining ground! Giving birth, yes, but raising children is no longer considered just a mother's job. The new age dads do not lag behind on any quarters as far as their kids are concerned.
Be it at work or at home, the gender role played is no longer a punishment that has to be mandatorily followed. It may be convenience based for running a perfect balance but it is definitely no longer disadvantageous to be of either sex.
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